Group+2+Notes


 * AP BIOLOGY**

**CHAPTER 45 – ENDOCRINE SYSTEM**

**A chemical signal that travels through the blood stream and effects certain cells**
 * 1) **Define Hormone:**
 * 1) **Describe the three main parts to a biological control system:**

**detects a stimulus and sends information to a control center** **Sends out a signal that directs an effector to respond** **Starts specific physiological or developmental changes** **Amine hormones that have cell surface receptors**
 * 1) **Receptor/sensor**
 * 1) **control center**
 * 1) **effector**
 * 1) **Describe the basic sequence of events for each of the following (figure 45.3 will be helpful)**
 * 2) **Water-soluble hormone**

**Intracellular receptors that is a transcription factor**
 * 1) **lipid-soluble hormone**

**Immune responses**
 * 1) **Hormones travel long distances in the body to deliver their signal. Some substances only travel short distances (paracrine signaling). Identify the main response stimulated by the following local regulators:**
 * 2) **Cytokines**

**stimulate cell proliferation and differentiation**
 * 1) **growth factors**

**stimulates the release of ecdysone from the prothoracic glands** **promotes molting and the development of adult characteristics**
 * 1) **Describe the following invertebrate hormone functions**
 * 2) **Brain hormone**
 * 1) **ecdysone**

**promotes the retention of juvenile characteristics**
 * 1) **juvenile hormone**

**promotes blood flow and kills bacteria and cancer**
 * 1) **nitric oxide**

**regulate nearby cells in many ways depending on the tissue**
 * 1) **prostaglandins (PGs)**

**Bottom of the brain** **responses throughout the body**
 * 1) **Parts of the endocrine system.**
 * 2) **hypothalamus**
 * 3) **location:**
 * 1) **stimulated by:**

**releases and inhibits hormones**
 * 1) **main response:**

**base of the hypothalamus**
 * 1) **Pituitary gland**
 * 2) **Location:**
 * 1) **Regulated by tropic hormones**

**regulate the endocrine gland** **anterior pituitary** **promotes retention of water by kidneys**
 * 1) **define:**
 * 1) **Where do these regulatory hormones come from?**
 * 1) **Posterior Pituitary**
 * 2) **Antidiuretic hormone (ADH)**
 * 3) **Describe the action of this hormone**

**mammary glants to secrete milk**
 * 1) **Oxytocin**
 * 2) **Describe the action of this hormone**

**stimulate activities of the gonads**
 * 1) **Anterior Pituitary**
 * 2) **FSH and LH**
 * 3) **Main function**

**promotes development of thyroid gland**
 * 1) **TSH**
 * 2) **Main function**

**stimulates production of steriod hormones by adrenal cortex**
 * 1) **Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)**
 * 2) **Main function**

**Stimuate release of tropic hormone** **acts on target tissue and secretes hormones**
 * 1) **All of these hormones have the same signal pathway. List the steps in this pathway:**


 * 1) **Non tropic hormones (describe the basic action and function of each)**

**stimulates mammary gland growth and milk production and secretion in mammals**
 * 1) **prolactin (PRL)**

**b. Melanocyte-stimulating hormone (MSH)** **regulates activity of pigment containing cells**

**c. endorphins** **bind to receptors in the brain and reduce pain**

**d. growth hormones** **stimultes growth in the organism**


 * 1) **thyroid**
 * 2) **location?** the surface of the tracea

the amino acid tyrosin
 * 1) **The two main hormones secreted by this gland contain what element?**
 * 1) **What other endocrine gland controls the release of these hormones?**

plays a crucial role in vertebrate development and maturation help to maintain normal blood pressure, heart rate, muscle tone, digestion, and reproductive functions increasing the rate of oxygen consumption and cellular metabolism.
 * 1) **Major functions of these hormones**


 * 1) **Parathyroid**
 * 2) **Location?**


 * 1) **major function of parathyroid hormone**

induces specialized cells called osteoclasts to decompose the mineralized matrix of bone and release Ca2+ into the blood.
 * 1) **on bon****es**

it promotes the conversion of vitamin D to its active hormonal form
 * 1) **on the kidneys**

exerts effects on bone and kidneys opposite those of PTH and thus lowers blood Ca2+ levels.
 * 1) **calcitonin**
 * 2) **function**


 * 1) **Pancreas**
 * 2) **Location?**


 * 1) **Insulin and glucagon**

induces specialized cells called osteoclasts to decompose the mineralized matrix of bone and release Ca2+ into the blood.
 * 1) **secreted by which cells?**
 * 1) **function of each hormone**

insulin is released and lowers blood glucose
 * 1) **insulin**

glucagon is released and its effects increase blood glucose concentration.
 * 1) **glucagon**

all body cells (except brain cells) to take up glucose from the blood.
 * 1) **target tissue for each hormone**
 * 2) **insulin**

liver
 * 1) **glucagon**

It is caused by a deficiency of insulin or a depressed response to insulin
 * 1) **What is diabetes mellitus?**

adjacent to the kidneys. produces two hormones, epinephrine and norepinephrine
 * 1) **Adrenal gland**
 * 2) **Location**
 * 1) **Adrenal medulla. Give the main action of each of the following hormones**

**epinephrine and norepinephrine**

They increase the rate of glycogen breakdown in the liver and skeletal muscles, promote glucose release into the blood by liver cells, and stimulate the release of fatty acids from fat cells.

Stressful stimuli suppress the secretion of ACTH
 * 1) **What type****e of signal stimulates the release of these hormones?**
 * 1) **Adrenal cortex.**
 * 2) **Describe the main action of corticosteroids:**

when stress is experienced over a long period of time.
 * 1) **What type of signal stimulates the release of these hormones?**


 * 1) **Gonadal Sex Hormones**
 * 2) **Location where secreted:**


 * 1) **Describe the main function of each:**

promote development and maintenance of male sex characteristics produced early in development determine whether a fetus develops as a male or a female. are responsible for the development and maintenance of the female reproductive system and the development of female secondary sex characteristics.
 * 1) **androgens**
 * 1) **estrogens**

are involved in promoting uterine lining growth to support the growth and development of an embryo.
 * 1) **progestins**

near the center of the mammalian brain regulates functions related to light and to seasons marked by changes in day length
 * 1) **Pineal gland**
 * 2) **Location:**
 * 1) **Describe the main function of melatonin**

**Chapter 49 – Sensory and Motor Mechanisms**

**Note: Use the questions for guiding your reading of this chapter. You will not be responsible for everything in this chapter!!**

**Read about the bat and moth on page 1045 – because it is very cool!!**

**Once the brain is aware of a sensation it is a perception**
 * 1) **Sensory Receptors**
 * 2) **Describe the difference between sensations and perception.**


 * 1) **Sensory Receptors**
 * 2) **Stimuli are forms of stimulants**


 * 1) **Describe the four functions of receptors**


 * 1) **transduction converts stimulus to nerve impulse**

**result: action potential**


 * 1) **Amplification signal gets stronger to be carried**


 * 1) **Transmission action potential transmitted to nervous system**


 * 1) **Integration processing of information**


 * 1) **Sensory adaptation decreased in sensitivity**


 * 1) **Types of sensory receptors: give a brief description of each type of receptor and an example.**


 * 1) **Mechanoreceptors: pressure and touch receptors**


 * 1) **Chemoreceptors: detects chemicals for taste and smell**


 * 1) **Electromagnetic Receptors: light receptors such as eye**


 * 1) **Thermoreceptors: register heat and cold**


 * 1) **Pain receptors: experience when excess heat or pressure or chemical signals**


 * 1) **Hearing and Equilibrium**
 * 2) **What are the actual receptors that pick up sound vibrations and transmit them to the nervous system? Hairs in the ear**

>>> **mechanoreceptors**
 * 1) **What type of receptors would you consider these?**

**Both involve fluid in the ear**
 * 1) **how is equilibrium similar to hearing?**

**Chemoreceptors**
 * 1) **Taste and Smell**
 * 2) **What type of receptors are involved in these senses?**

**Tounge**
 * 1) **Where are these sensors located in humans?**
 * 2) **Taste**

**Nose/Sinus**
 * 1) **smell**

**Electromagnetic** **Retina** **Register color** **More sensitive to light but black and white**
 * 1) **Vision**
 * 2) **What type of sensors used for vision?**
 * 1) **Where are these sensors found in the human eye?**
 * 1) **Describe the function of each sensor**
 * 2) **Cones**
 * 1) **Rods**

consists of fluid held under pressure in closed body parts
 * 1) **Skeleton**
 * 2) **Describe the components for each of the following**
 * 3) **Hydrostatic skeleton**

consists of a hard encasement
 * 1) **Exoskeleton**

consists of hard supporting elements such as bone
 * 1) **Endoskeleton**

body posture muscles and tendons to contract and relax
 * 1) **what is the most important structural feature in supporting body weight?**
 * 1) **What structures actually bear most of the body weight load?**
 * 1) **Muscles**
 * 2) **What is the main action of muscle tissue?**

make up muscle fiber make up myofibrils 2 strands of actin and 1 strand of reglitory protien coiled around 1 another staggered arays of myosin
 * 1) **Functional unit of muscles – identify the role of each of the following in a muscle unit**
 * 2) **Myofibrils**
 * 1) **myofilament**
 * 1) **Thin filament**
 * 1) **thick filament**
 * 1) **Sarcomere**

the boarders of the sarcomere area near edge of sarcomere where there are only thin filiments broad region that corisponds to the length of the think filiments filiments slide past one another longitudinally, this is based on the interaction myosin and actin ATP
 * 1) **Z lines**
 * 1) **I band**
 * 1) **A band**
 * 1) **Action of a sarcomere**
 * 2) **Describe the basic steps in a contraction (see figure 49.30)**
 * 1) **How is energy stored in muscle?**

aerobic resperation
 * 1) **What type of energy producing process sustains extended contractions of muscle?**

blocks myosin binding sites when ca binds to it removes tropomyosin bind to tropinin sites a specialized ER
 * 1) **Explain the role of each in regulating a muscle contraction**
 * 2) **Tropomyosin**
 * 1) **tropinin**
 * 1) **calcium ions**
 * 1) **sarcoplasmic reticulum**

a single motor neuron and all muscle fibers that control it
 * 1) **Neural control of muscles**
 * 2) **Define a motor unit**

ACh
 * 1) **What neurotransmitter stimulates muscle contraction?**

by trigering an action potential
 * 1) **How does this NT trigger a muscle to contract? What is the mechanism?**

heart muscle, diffrences in structeral and electrical diffs
 * 1) **Briefly describe how each of the following muscle types differ from skeletal muscle:**
 * 2) **cardiac muscle**


 * 1) **smooth muscle,** not strairated found in the walls of organs